The Arab Spring, a wave of protests and uprisings that swept across the Middle East and North Africa starting in late 2010, irrevocably altered the political landscapes of many nations. Among the most significant transformations involved the complex relationship between civilian governments and their militaries. Examining Turkey and Egypt, two countries with historically powerful armed forces, reveals divergent paths in civil-military relations both before and after this pivotal period. While both nations experienced periods of military dominance prior to 2010, the Arab Spring acted as a catalyst, leading to a more civilian-controlled military in Turkey, whereas Egypt witnessed a resurgence of military influence under a new authoritarian guise.
Before the Arab Spring, both Turkey and Egypt operated under systems where the military held considerable, albeit often indirect, political sway. In Turkey, the military historically saw itself as the guardian of Atatürk's secular Kemalist principles. This perception manifested in coups and interventions, most notably in 1960, 1971, 1980, and a "post-modern" coup in 1997 that forced the resignation of Prime Minister Necmettin Erbakan. The military even maintained a National Security Council (MGK) where its input carried significant weight, effectively allowing it to veto civilian government policies it deemed a threat to secularism or national unity. Similarly, the Egyptian military, under regimes like Hosni Mubarak's, was a deeply entrenched institution with vast economic interests and a significant role in national security and politics. Though not intervening directly through coups since 1952, its influence was undeniable, underpinning the stability of authoritarian rule and ensuring its own privileged position.
The Arab Spring initiated distinct trajectories for the two nations. In Turkey, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) under Recep Tayyip Erdoğan initially leveraged the democratic aspirations unleashed by the uprisings to curb military influence. The AKP successfully diminished the military's political power through a series of reforms and legal changes, particularly after the 2007 constitutional amendment that made the MGK advisory. By 2010, the military's role in politics had been significantly curtailed, with civilian oversight becoming more robust. This was further solidified following the attempted coup in 2016, which, despite its chaotic nature, ultimately led to a decisive consolidation of power under civilian leadership and a purge of military elements perceived as disloyal.
Egypt's experience, however, charted a starkly different course. The 2011 revolution removed Mubarak, and the subsequent period saw the military play a dominant role in the transition, initially overseeing the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF). While the Muslim Brotherhood's Mohammed Morsi was elected president in 2012, his brief tenure was marked by increasing tensions with the military establishment. The pivotal moment came in 2013 when the military, led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, overthrew Morsi following widespread protests. This event marked not a reduction, but a dramatic increase in the military's direct political control. Under el-Sisi, who became president in 2014, the military's economic and political footprint has expanded significantly, with former generals occupying key government positions and a palpable return to authoritarian rule where civilian institutions serve to legitimize military dominance.
Comparing the post-Arab Spring era, Turkey has moved towards a model of strong civilian supremacy, where the military, while still a critical institution, is firmly subordinate to elected officials. The reforms enacted before and after 2011, culminating in the response to the 2016 coup attempt, have fundamentally reshaped the civil-military dynamic. In contrast, Egypt has regressed from a period of civilian experimentation back to a system where the military is the primary arbiter of power. The Arab Spring, rather than ushering in greater civilian control in Egypt, ultimately facilitated a military takeover that has entrenched its authority even more deeply than under Mubarak.
In conclusion, the Arab Spring served as a critical inflection point for civil-military relations in both Turkey and Egypt, but with diametrically opposed outcomes. Turkey's military, once a formidable political player, has been brought under firm civilian control, a shift facilitated by political will and reformist measures. Egypt, on the other hand, has seen its military reassert and expand its dominance, transforming a revolution that sought to empower citizens into an opportunity for renewed military hegemony. These contrasting trajectories highlight the varied ways in which historical legacies, political leadership, and societal dynamics interact with periods of profound political upheaval.