The study of culture within political science has evolved significantly, moving from earlier, often essentialist, understandings to more dynamic and nuanced conceptualizations. Initially, culture was frequently viewed as a stable, monolithic entity, largely determinative of political behavior. However, subsequent theoretical developments, particularly those emerging from constructivist and post-structuralist traditions, have challenged this static view, proposing instead that culture is fluid, contested, and actively produced through political processes. This essay will explore this trajectory, arguing that a richer understanding of political phenomena necessitates conceptualizing culture not as a fixed backdrop but as a dynamic element that is constantly shaped by and, in turn, shapes political action, institutions, and identities.
Early political science often treated culture as a set of inherited values and traditions that provided a predictable framework for political life. Scholars like Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, in their seminal 1963 work The Civic Culture, explored how national cultures influenced the stability and functioning of democratic systems. Their approach, rooted in modernization theory, implicitly assumed a correlation between certain cultural predispositions (e.g., trust, political participation) and desirable political outcomes. While valuable for its time, this perspective tended to homogenize national cultures and overlook internal variations and the agency of political actors in shaping cultural norms. It also risked essentializing cultures, linking them to specific national destinies or inherent characteristics that could be difficult to change.
The rise of constructivism in the late 20th century marked a critical shift. Instead of viewing culture as a given, constructivist scholars argue that cultural understandings are socially constructed and maintained through interaction. Alexander Wendt, a key figure in constructivist international relations theory, famously stated, "The only way in which anarchy brings about the self-help system is by the creation of the idea of anarchy, and this is a social, not a material, fact." This principle extends to culture within domestic politics. Political elites, social movements, and everyday citizens actively negotiate, contest, and redefine cultural meanings. For instance, the evolution of LGBTQ+ rights in Western democracies over the past few decades demonstrates how deeply entrenched cultural norms regarding gender and sexuality were not immutable but were actively challenged and transformed through sustained political and social activism. The language used, the arguments deployed, and the symbolic actions taken all contributed to a re-conceptualization of what is considered culturally acceptable and politically legitimate.
Post-structuralist approaches further complicate the notion of culture by emphasizing its inherent instability and its relationship with power. Thinkers like Michel Foucault highlighted how dominant discourses shape what is considered "knowledge" and "truth," thereby influencing cultural norms and political possibilities. In political science, this perspective suggests that culture is not simply a set of shared beliefs but a site of ongoing power struggles. For example, debates surrounding immigration and national identity often reveal how different groups attempt to impose their cultural narratives and definitions of belonging. The "culture wars" in various nations exemplify this, where competing visions of national identity, values, and social norms are fiercely contested, with significant implications for policy and political mobilization. The outcome of these contests is not a return to some prior cultural state but the creation of new, albeit often contested, cultural understandings.
Therefore, conceptualizing culture in political science requires moving beyond static typologies to embrace its dynamic, emergent, and contested nature. Future research should focus on the micro-level processes through which cultural meanings are produced, disseminated, and transformed by political actors. This includes examining the role of language, symbols, narratives, and media in shaping political culture and how these elements are mobilized in political contests. Furthermore, understanding the interplay between global cultural flows and local political contexts offers another fertile ground for inquiry. By treating culture as an active force in politics, rather than a passive reflection, political scientists can gain deeper insights into political change, stability, and conflict.